Establishing and Structuring Humorous Novels

Copyright 2020 by Gary L. Pullman

For me, Mark Twain is the most humorous humorist that ever wrote humor.

I think part of the reason that he's humorous is that he constructs a plot that provides a sense of progress and a series of burlesques unified through character, setting, and situation. Often, the titles of his books themselves identify or suggest the conceit: A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, Life on the Mississippi, A Tramp Abroad.

For example, the idea for A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (traveling back in time to set up a continuous contrast between the medieval and the modern) establishes the basis for sustained, continuous humor, satire, parody, and burlesque.

In addition (Twain usually progresses from general to specific), the chapters themselves of his novels suggest the same structure and the same elements: “Camelot,” “King Arthur's Court,” “Knights of the Round Table” . . . “The Eclipse,” “Merlin's Tower,” . . . “The Tournament” . . . .

Internally, each chapter is also structured:

Chapter I (Camelot): the countryside is described; a girl appears; the protagonist approaches the town; a detailed description of the town and several of its residents is presented; Chapter II (King Arthur's Court): The protagonist exchanges dialogue with an old man; the protagonist exchanges dialogue with a page; the protagonist and the page arrive at Sir Kay's castle; the narrator presents a philosophical conclusion (i. e., one of the novel's themes).

This threefold structure indicates, with increasing specificity, the sense of progress, which unifies the story while introducing topics for humor. By the time readers finish the story, the foibles of the novel's characters and the folly of their times (and their view of the world) will have been thoroughly examined, criticized, and lampooned.

In the actual paragraphs of the story, Twain uses many devices to spoof the targets of his humor, including mistaking Camelot for an “asylum”; similes (“as lonesome as Sundays,” “made him look like a forked carrot”); incongruous diction (“”her own merits in . . . respect” to being “a spectacle”); derisive adjectives (“windowless,” “wilderness of thatched cabins,” “crooked alleys,” “unpaved,” “troops of dogs and nude children,” “reeking wallow”); contrast (“a noble cavalcade . . . glorious” vs. “the muck and swine and naked brats”); evaluation (the old man's use of Middle English confirms his status, in the protagonist's eyes, as an inmate of the 'asylum”); personification (“comfort his very liver,” “let that shudder its way home”); metaphor (“he was pretty enough to frame”); incongruous description (“shrimp-colored tights”); and a play on words (“”he informed me he was a page,” but, the narrator says, “you ain't more than a paragraph”).

Twain's technique could be used to set up a variety of other opportunities for humor through such contrasts and conflicts between opposing types of characters:

• A genius among fools
• Hercules among the Amazons
• The experiences that occasion various proverbs
• A sane man on a ship of fools

Structuring Humor, Part 2

Copyright 2019 by Gary L. Pullman

In describing Old School icons, the authors suggest that it's their personal traits and behavior that makes them Old School alumni. John Wayne is Old School because of his moral code of conduct, patriotism, his championing of democracy, his belief in “self-reliance,” and his knowledge that one creates one's “own opportunities” for “success” (11-13).

Billy Joel is an Old School graduate because of his perseverance, his belief “in himself,” his hard work, his acceptance of responsibility for his own actions, and his desire to “please his audience” (13-15).

 Tina Turner is an Old School scholar because of her persistence in following her dreams, her hard work, her “will and determination,” and her ability and practice of thinking “for herself” (15-18).

Chris Kyle is an Old School grad because of his military service, his support for veterans, his patriotism, his courage, and his willingness to do what was required of him to protect his fellow soldiers and to defend his country (18-20).

The next chapter, “Snowdrift” provides commentary and examples of the drift of U. S. society toward becoming a nation of “Snowflakes.” The anecdotes include a Little League player who stops running on his way to home plate and is tagged out, a Little League coach's coaching, Feirstein's son's objecting to his father's characterization of a boy's denigration of them as “bad people” because they live in an exclusive neighborhood, and various reports of the Snowflake culture's invasion of “our college campuses” (21-28).

The latter list includes some of the better-known names in higher education: Yale University, Emory University, Oberlin College, Brown University, and the University of Missouri, concerning students' anxiety or outrage about Halloween costumes, Trump's name in chalk on campus sidewalks, a cafeteria rice dish, a debate about “rape culture,” the Republican National Convention, and various words and phrases which featured “microaggressions.” (In the “rape culture” incident, Brown University provided students with a “safe space” containing “cookies, coloring books, bubbles, Play-Doh, calming music, pillows, blankets, and a video of frolicking puppies” (27). 

Chapter 5, “Growing Up Old School” illustrates what it was like growing up in the 1960s for O'Reilly and Fierstein. It was during their childhood, the authors suggest, that they learned, primarily from their parents, schoolmates, and neighbors, the Old School values that, as Feirstein puts it, not only taught him “self-reliance” and work skills, but also how “to curse like an Old School sailor, with style, effect, and Olympic gold medal distinction” (33).

Chapter 5 also features “The Old School Guide to Modern Parenting,” a “comparison chart” that juxtaposes “Old School” and “Snowflake” answers to 16 basic questions as a means of helping the parents among their readers determine whether they are “in danger of bringing up a Snowflake” rather than “a child who can actually cope with the world” (36-37). This handy, dandy table is itself humorous enough to be worth the cost of the book. Several questions are linked: “Fourth birthday present?” (“Toys and stuffed animals” for Old Schoolers; “An iPhone” for Snowflakes) precedes the question “Child's greatest fear?” (“Getting a time out,'” Old Schoolers say; “Low batteries,” report Snowflakes).

The structure, so far, of Old School?

1. Introduction (“Greetings from 1973” and Chapter 1-2)
2. Case Studies (Chapter 3)
3. Snowflake Culture's Invasion of College Campuses (Chapter 4)
4. Growing Up Old School (Chapter 5)

Chapter 6, “Social,” examines the social lives of Old Schoolers back in the day. We'll save that for a later installment of “Structuring Humor.”

Structuring Humor

Copyright by Gary L. Pullman 2019

Humor—good humor, that is—is difficult in itself. Structuring humor can be an added challenge. That's why the aspiring humorist should analyze the work of professionals, such as Bill O'Reilly, author of Old School: Life in the sane Lane, and his co-author, Brice Feirstein. It seems safe to say that many would recognize O'Reilly's name as that of the host of The O'Reilly Factor, late of Fox News, but O'Reilly has also written a number of bestselling books. Feirstein, although less known to the public in general, is also a professional writer. As a screenwriter, he wrote the James Bond scripts for GoldenEye, Tomorrow Never Dies, and The World Is Not Enough, as well as many articles for such national periodicals as The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. Feirstein is also the author of Real Men Don't Eat Quiche and is a long-term contributing editor for Vanity Fair. Both O'Reilly and Feirstein have a keen sense of humor, as is evident in much of their work, including Old School.

So how did the authors structure their humor?

Old School starts with an introduction, “Greetings from 1973,” in which O'Reilly, using the metaphor of taking a ride in an automobile, promises to share the career path that led him into journalism after his interest in the subject was inspired by his teaching English and history at Pace High School in Opa-locka, Florida, “the crack capital of Dade County” during 1973, “a year when the U.S. government was falling apart.” He introduces the theme of the book by recounting the fact that, on the actual drive he took from Florida to Massachusetts, where he's been accepted as a student at Boston University, in the school's “broadcast journalism master's degree program,” which he undertook without benefit of an air conditioner, he advises people who complain about “their personal temperature” to “Stop,” adding the observation, “Life is not climate-controlled, people. Accept it. Don't be a Snowflake, a condition we will soon describe.”

Snowflakes, in fact, will become the target of O'Reilly's and Feirstein's humor, their adversaries who have been educated according to a curriculum far different than that of the Old School of which Old School's authors are alumni. Of course, humor often depends on targets or adversaries of one sort or another. Although humorists may be self-deprecating, the humorous opportunities offered by even the biggest ego is limited; a whole group of people, such as Snowflakes, offers many more targets for a pair of humorists.

In the first chapter of the book, “Preschool: Take Your Seat,” O'Reilly offers an anecdote about his father, Bill O'Reilly, Sr., who never let fashion get in the way of saving money. His father was happy to wear polyester, “mustard-yellow pants held up by red suspenders” that were too short for his 6'3” height. The dialogue between father and son is lively because of its allusions to history (the Great depression), fashion, an eye condition, and a disco band and the conflict between the generations that the respective speakers' points of view represents:

      “Dad, your pants are too short.”

      “Who are you, Oleg Cassini now?”

      “And what color is that?”

      “They're yellow. Do you have astigmatism?”

      “Come on, Dad, this is not a good presentation. You don't leave the house wearing those things, do you?”

      My father paused, giving me a look. He knew I was jazzing him, but his sense of humor overrode any offense.

      “Don't remember you checking out my wardrobe when I was paying for your college.”

      “Yeah, but you didn't look like one of the Village People back then.”

      My father actually laughed and walked into the kitchen. He wore those pants for years (1-2).

To the Old School attitude and behavior O'Reilly suggests by this anecdote, he and Feirstein will juxtapose those of their targets, the Snowflakes:

Now there is an ongoing battle between traditional Americans and those who want a kinder, gentler landscape full of “conversations” and group hugs, folks who believe that life must be fair and that, if it is not, there has to be a “safe space” available where they can cry things out (2).

O'Reilly next introduces his co-author, explaining how he and Feirstein met at Boston University; they're both “Old School,” O'Reilly explains, but they take different approaches to communicating with others who have opinions different than their own: “While I embrace an East Coast swagger, Feirstein does not immediately alienate half the universe as I have a tendency to do, but we're both Old School guys, as you will soon see. However, we take different buses to the school, which makes things interesting” (3).

Next, to further illustrate Old School teaching, O'Reilly lists examples of hypothetical situations in which he, his parents, or others might have been involved and his schoolmates and neighbors' reactions to his and his parents' behavior. A few illustrate the approach:

          If my mom had defended me after a kid-on-kid altercation, I could never have left the house again.

         If my dad had yelled at the Little League coach, air might have left the tires of our family car.

         If I'd borrowed money from another kid to buy a Three Musketeers and didn't pay it back, no one would have played with me.

         If a kid kicked someone in a fight, he was blacklisted. Only fists, and no hitting when someone was down.

    If a girl curse, silence ensued. For a long time. And boys never bothered girls because of the “Brother and His Large Friends” rule (4).

He sets up the next chapter with two short paragraphs at the end of chapter one:

       It is not Old School to live in the past, but remembering how things were as opposed to how things are now is a required course.

         So let's get started.

The title of the book's second chapter explains its mission: “Introducing the old School Curriculum.” A multiple-choice test quizzes readers on their actions and practices: “Do you still have a landline telephone?” “Do you still balance your checking account every month?” “If someone wishes you a 'Merry Christmas,' what's your immediate response?” “Which best reflects your view on dealing with terrorists?” What would you do “if you happen upon a raging warehouse fire late at night”? Then, the authors explain how members of the Old School conduct themselves in various situations, contrasting their behavior with that of Snowflakes. They suggest such individuals as Al Gore and Rosie O'Donnell are apt to be snowflakes, whereas Jack Nicholson, like Teddy Roosevelt, could be Old School.

Essentially, then, the introduction and the first two chapters of Old School introduce its topic, separate people into two groups, members of the Old School and Snowflakes, and suggests that Old School is easier exemplified than defined.

Chapter 3, “Old School Is in Session,” presents biographical sketches of four well-known members of the Old School: John Wayne, Billy Joel, Tina Turner, and Chris Kyle. We'll consider chapter 3 (and others) in future posts, coming soon to a computer near you.

Anatomy of the Sitcom: “The Haunted House”

Copyright 2010 by Gary L. Pullman

“The Haunted House,“ episode 98 (Season Four)

Several of the scripts for The Andy Griffith Show featured supernatural or paranormal themes. (For an explanation of the difference between these two terms, visit my other blog, Chillers and Thrillers: A Blog on the Theory and Practice of Horror.) One of these is episode 98 (season four), “The Haunted House,” by Harvey Bullock. Like many of the other episodes of the show, this one is structured according to a series of problematic situations, the results of these problems, an attempted solution to each problem (which only gives rise to another problem), a turning point, and a recognition by the main character that leads to a resolution, which is then followed by the results of the resolution:

Initial Problem: Opie hits a baseball thrown by a friend and breaks a window at the abandoned Rimshaw house.

Results: Both boys are nervous about retrieving the ball because the house is rumored to be haunted. As they approach the door, they hear a spooky noise that scares them away. They go to the courthouse and tell their story to Andy and Barney. The men tell them it was probably just the whistling wind. Andy wants them to stay out of the house because it is likely that the floorboards are loose.

Solution-Problem: Then, sensing that Barney was putting up a false front when he said there was nothing to be afraid of, Andy asks his deputy to go get the ball for the boys.

Results: While it is clear that Barney doesn’t want to do it, he can’t back out now. When Gomer suddenly comes by, Barney quickly enlists him to come along. The nervous deputy enters the house first--”Age before beauty,” says Gomer. Unfortunately, they don’t get much farther than the boys did. Ghostly moans send them scrambling for the door. Back at the courthouse, Andy chides Barney for failing to get the ball and for believing the house is haunted. Barney says that he recalls that when old man Rimshaw died, his last wish was for his home to remain undisturbed. Otis Campbell chimes in with rumors he has heard: the walls move, the eyes on the portrait of Mr. Rimshaw seem to follow a person around the room, and axes float through the air.

Solution-Problem: Andy dismisses all this as nonsense, and he goes to the Rimshaw house with Barney and Gomer in tow. They quickly locate the baseball, and despite objections from his cohorts, Andy insists they look around the place.

Results: While he wanders off into another room, Barney and Gomer slowly move around the room, looking scared to death. Suddenly, Gomer disappears! Barney panics, and Andy returns. Gomer suddenly reappears. He had inadvertently stepped into a closet or something. The eerie thing is, Gomer says that someone or something pushed him out. Next, Andy notices that the wallpaper above the fireplace is peeling and the wall is warm. Barney suggests that maybe an old tramp has been using the fireplace. Andy ventures upstairs and asks Barney and Gomer to check out the cellar. Gomer correctly surmises that the cellar is downstairs. When Barney opens the cellar door, he sees an ax. Too scared to go down the stairs, he softly inquires, “Any old tramps down there?” then quickly shuts the door. Gomer tells Barney that legend has it that Rimshaw put chains on his hired hand and then killed him with an ax. Barney notices the eyes on the Rimshaw portrait following him. When he tells Andy, Andy responds that it’s probably a trick of the light.

Turning Point: Barney knocks on the wall--and his knock is answered. Andy gets the same result when he knocks.

Moment of Recognition (implied, rather than explicit, in this episode): Suddenly, Andy appears frightened. He orders loudly, “Let’s get out of here!” Barney and Gomer quickly bolt out of the house, but Andy remains. He has a plan in mind.Results: Suddenly, we see Otis and the notorious moonshiner Big Jack Anderson in the house. They are laughing, and Big Jack is quite proud of the fact that his scare tactics have worked. He has found the perfect spot for his still, and claims he could probably stay there for twenty years. As they come out of their hiding place, believing the house is empty, they get the shock of their lives. They witness an ax hanging in the air, a baseball rolling down the stairs, and the eyes moving on the portrait. They make tracks leaving the house. Meanwhile, Barney has bravely determined he must go rescue Andy, so he comes in the rear entrance. He sees the suspended ax and hears moaning. He nearly passes out from fright before Andy can explain things.

Resolution: The lawmen later use the infamous ax to smash Big Jack’s still. Andy captures Anderson and surrenders him to Federal Agent Bowden of the Alcohol Control Division.

Results: As usual, Andy generously shares the capture credit, in this case with Barney and Gomer.


Note: The plot synopsis is taken, nearly verbatim, from Dale Robinson and David Fernandes’ The Definitive Andy Griffith Show Reference: Episode-by-Episode, with Cast and Production Biographies and a Guide to Collectibles (McFarland and Company, Inc., Publishers, Jefferson, NC, and London, 1996).

Anatomy of the Sitcom: “Gomer the House Guest"

Copyright 2010 by Gary L. Pullman

“Gomer the House Guest,” episode 97 (Season Four)


This episode is constructed of a series of problems (conflicts), followed by its results (often examples of a character’s behavior), and solutions which themselves give rise to additional problems (often examples of a character‘s behavior or the results of the attempted solution). The problems are and solutions are situations; the examples of instances of a character’s behavior (action).

Near the middle of the story, a turning point occurs, during which the protagonist plans to take, or actually takes, an action that moves the plot in the opposite direction from that in which it has been progressing. At some point, toward the end of the story, the protagonist makes a discovery (moment of recognition), which allows him or her to solve the problem once and for all time (resolution), and the story ends with the results of this final solution.

Since situation comedies are, by definition, comedies, they end with the main character in a better situation than the one in which he or she found him- or herself at the story’s beginning.

Initial Problem: Wally is upset with Gomer because he spends too much time telling stories to some of his customers, while others get impatient for service.

Result(s): Wally notices one impatient person driving away in disgust.

Solution-Problem: This incident causes Wally to fire Gomer, which puts Gomer out of both a job and a house because his living quarters were in a back room of the station.

Result(s): Gomer asks Andy if he can stay in one of the cells at the courthouse for a few days.

Solution-Problem: Sympathetic, Andy invites him to stay at the Taylors’ until he finds a new job; Gomer turns out to be a real nuisance..

Result(s): Gomer talks throughout an episode of “Shep and Ralph” (a story of a man and his dog), ruining it for Andy and his family. When Gomer decides to do some chores for the family to earn his keep (since Andy won’t accept any rent payment), he chooses to do them overnight. He does some sawing, and while trying to repair the toggle switch on Aunt Bee’s vacuum cleaner, he turns on the machine. These escapades wake up the entire family. Finally, Andy gets him to prepare for bed, but Gomer gargles loudly and sings “No Account Mule” over and over, annoying Andy.

Solution-Problem: The next morning, Andy, exhausted, bluntly tells Gomer that due to the racket last night, he did not get much sleep.

Result(s): Gomer apologizes and vows to be more quiet. Sure enough, in the evening, Gomer retires when the family does and quietly reads his comic book in bed.

Solution-Problem: Unfortunately, two of his former customers come by the house asking for Gomer’s appraisal of the condition of their automobiles. This situation creates such a din that Andy’s neighbors wake up and complain.

Result(s): The next morning, Andy, Opie, and Aunt Bee are unusually cranky with each other. They realize they are not getting enough sleep.

Turning Point: Andy becomes determined to tell Gomer he must find other arrangements.

Solution-Problem: Meanwhile, he goes off to work as usual, where he demonstrates that his grumpiness is even-handed.

Result(s): He begins handing out tickets to any driver whose automobile is in poor shape. He discovers a lot of offenders.

Moment of Recognition: Andy also discovers that Wally’s business has dwindled drastically since he fired Gomer.

Result(s): When he returns home, Andy finds Gomer chatting with his old customers, who have missed their stories as much as his mechanical skills.

Resolution: Andy orders them all to follow his car, and they parade straight to Wally’s, where Andy points out that Gomer is Wally’s business.

Result(s): Wally needs no coercion to rehire Gomer. Andy suggests to Wally that he could improve Gomer’s “kitchenette” by providing an extra burner and an icebox. Wally readily agrees and even adds some fresh paint and some groceries to make his prized employee more comfortable.



Note: The plot synopsis is taken, nearly verbatim, from -- Dale Robinson and David Fernandes’ The Definitive Andy Griffith Show Reference: Episode-by-Episode, with Cast and Production Biographies and a Guide to Collectibles (McFarland and Company, Inc., Publishers, Jefferson, NC, and London, 1996).